These include words such as he, him, her, it, its, this, that, etc.

Example

They is used instead of repeating the word cigarettes.

Lexical variation is the way in which writers use different vocabulary to refer to the same thing in a text.

Example

The word, disease, is used to avoid repetition of tuberculosis. The word, tobacco, is used as a superordinate to include cigarettes. Another example would be the use of the word, vehicle, to refer to car.

Ellipsis refers to the practice of omitting rather than repeating certain kinds of information which the reader’s common sense can supply from the surrounding text.

Example

If we insert words into the above text that have been omitted, the text would look like this.

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Read the text ‘Beijing cleans up its toilets’ and decide what the words in blue refer to. Check your answer by placing your cursor over the word in blue. Now decide what the words in red refer to. To check your answer place your cursor over the word in red.

	Beijing cleans up its toilets BBC Words in the News May 2012 Reprinted with permission from the bbc.co.uk
1 2 3	Beijing city government has decreed that no public toilet should have more than two flies flying around ^ at any one time. This is just one of a series of new rules set by the authorities to improve the city's public toilets.
4 5	Six city departments have put their heads together to come up with the new rules. They cover cleaning, ^ the use of equipment and ^ training for attendants.
6 7 8 9	No public toilet should have more than two flies buzzing around ^ - although the regulations don't state how that's to be checked. There's also an ordinance covering what's confusingly referred to as "discarded items". There should be no more than two of these left in any public convenience.
10 11	The new standards also detail how smelly a lavatory should be. Most people who've paid a visit to a Beijing public toilet, know at the moment they're very pungent indeed.
12 13 14	Of course, there is a serious side to these new regulations. Many people who live in the city's old neighbourhoods still don't have their own toilet and ^ have no choice but to use public conveniences. For them, these rules might make an unavoidable daily necessity, a touch
15	more palatable.

The ‘^’ symbol indicates where ellipsis occurs. Click on what you think is the correct answer in each case.

Line 2			Correct! Sorry!
Line 5a			Correct! Sorry!
Line 5b			Correct! Sorry!
Line 6			Correct! Sorry!
Line 13	The city’s old neighbourhoods	The many people who live in the city’s old neighbourhoods	Correct! Sorry!

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Now practise your knowledge of text cohesion through reference by working with a longer reading passage. Before you begin the activities, you will need to be familiar with the following vocabulary. Match the correct definition to the items of vocabulary on the left.

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The following article has been divided into sections. Complete the multiple choice questions after each section and check your answers before moving onto the next section.

James Buchanan Duke: Father of the modern cigarette By William Kremer BBC World Service
	Section One
1 2 3 4	It looks harmless enough - white, 8cm (3in) long and about the width of a child's finger - but the cigarette is vilified* like no other product. Who invented it and how much responsibility does he bear for the countless deaths it has caused?

1. What does It refer to? (Line 1)   A. A child’s finger Incorrect   B. The cigarette Correct   C. Tobacco Incorrect 2. Who does he refer to? (Line 3)   A. US surgeon Alton Ochsner Incorrect   B. James Buchanan Duke Correct   C. Robert Proctor Incorrect

	Section Two
5 6 7	US surgeon Alton Ochsner recalled that when he was a medical student in 1919 his class was summoned to observe an autopsy* of a lung cancer victim. At that time, the disease was so rare it was thought unlikely the students would ever get another chance.
8 9 10 11	But by the year 2000, it was estimated that 1.1 million people were dying annually from the disease, with about 85% of those cases stemming from a single cause - tobacco. "The cigarette is the deadliest artefact in the history of human civilisation," says Robert Proctor of Stanford University. "It killed about 100 million people in the 20th Century."

3.	What does It refer to? (Line 11)
	A.	The cigarette	Correct
	B.	Tobacco	Incorrect
	C.	Smoking	Incorrect

Section Three

12 13 14 15 16 17

Jordan Goodman, the author of Tobacco in History, says that as a historian he is careful about pointing the finger at individuals, "but in the history of tobacco I feel much more confident saying that James Buchanan Duke - otherwise known as Buck Duke - was responsible for the 20th Century phenomenon known as the cigarette." Not only did Duke help create the modern cigarette, he also pioneered the marketing and distribution systems that have led to its success on every continent.

4.	What does I refer to? (Line 13)
	A.	The writer of this article	Incorrect
	B.	Jordan Goodman	Correct
	C.	Robert Proctor	Incorrect

5.	What does its success refer to? (Line 16)
	A.	The tobacco industry	Incorrect
	B.	The marketing of cigarettes	Incorrect
	C.	The modern cigarette	Correct

Section Four

18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31

In 1880, at the age of 24, Duke entered what was then a niche* within the tobacco business - ready-rolled cigarettes. A small team in Durham, North Carolina, hand-rolled the Duke of Durham cigarettes, twisting the ends to seal them. Two years later Duke saw an opportunity. He began working with a young mechanic called James Bonsack, who said he could mechanise cigarette manufacturing. Duke was convinced that people would want to smoke these neatly- rolled, perfectly symmetrical machine-made cigarettes. Bonsack's machine revolutionised the cigarette industry. "It cranked out* what was essentially a cigarette of infinite length, cut into the appropriate lengths by whirling shears," says Robert Proctor. The open ends meant it had to be "juiced-up with chemical additives". They added glycerine, sugar and molasses, and chemicals to prevent it from drying out. But keeping cigarettes moist was not the only challenge that Bonsack's contraption presented to Duke. While his factory girls typically rolled about 200 cigarettes in a shift, the new machine produced 120,000 cigarettes a day, about a fifth of US consumption at the time. "The problem was he produced more cigarettes than he could sell," says Goodman. "He had to work out how to capture this market."

6.	What does It refer to? (Line 24)
	A.	The cigarette industry	Incorrect
	B.	The new cigarette manufacturing machine	Correct
	C.	The small team in Durham	Incorrect

7.	What does it refer to? (Line 25)
	A.	The cigarette	Correct
	B.	The new cigarette manufacturing machine	Incorrect
	C.	Tobacco	Incorrect

8.	Who does his factoy girls refer to? (Line 28)
	A.	James Bonsack’s	Incorrect
	B.	Robert Proctor’s	Incorrect
	C.	James Buchanan’s	Correct

9.	Who does he refer to? (Line 30)
	A.	James Bonsack	Incorrect
	B.	James Buchanan	Correct
	C.	Jordan Goodman	Incorrect

	Section Five
32 33 34 35 36	The answer was to be found in advertising and marketing. Duke sponsored races, gave his cigarettes out for free at beauty contests and placed ads in the new "glossies" - the first magazines. He also recognised that the inclusion of collectable cigarette cards was as important as getting the product right. In 1889 alone, he spent $800,000 on marketing (about $25m in today's money).
37 38 39 40 41 42 43	Bonsack retained the patent to his machine, but as thanks for Duke's support in developing it, he offered him a 30% discount on the lease.* This competitive advantage, coupled with vigorous promotion, was key to Duke's early success. As he had suspected, people liked mechanised cigarettes. They were modern-looking and more hygienic - one campaign emphasised this point over cigars, which were manufactured using human hands and saliva, although cigarette smoking in the US quadrupled in the 15 years to 1900, it remained a niche market, with most tobacco being chewed or smoked through pipes and cigars.

10.	What and who do the following refer to - it, he and him? (Line 37-38)
		it	he	him
	A.	The machine-made cigarette	James Buchanan	James Bonsack	Incorrect
	B.	The machine	James Buchanan	James Bonsack	Incorrect
	C.	The machine-made cigarette	James Bonsack	James Buchanan	Correct

11.	What does this point refer to? (Line 41)
	A.	People like mechanised cigarettes	Incorrect
	B.	The cigarettes were modern-looking and more hygienic	Correct
	C.	The cigarettes were manufactured using human hands	Incorrect

Section Six

44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54

Duke - a cigar smoker himself - saw the potential for cigarettes to be used in places closed to cigars and pipes, such as drawing rooms and restaurants. The ease with which they could be lit and - unlike pipes - remain lit, also suited them to coffee breaks in modern city life. "The cigarette was really used in a different way," says Proctor. "And it was milder - and this is one of the great ironies, that cigarettes were widely thought to be safer than cigars, because they are just 'little cigars', right?" We now know that cigarettes are far more addictive than cigars. The fact that the smoke is inhaled - which it is not traditional for cigars - also makes them more dangerous. But a correlation with lung cancer was not made until the 1930s and the causal link was not established until 1957 in the UK and 1964 in the US. The WHO warns that unless preventative measures are taken, 100 million people will die of tobacco-related diseases over the next 30 years - more than from Aids, tuberculosis, car accidents and suicide combined.

12.	What does they refer to? (Line 45)
	A.	Cigars	Incorrect
	B.	Pipes	Incorrect
	C.	Cigarettes	Correct

13.	What does them refer to? (Line 51)
	A.	Cigars	Incorrect
	B.	Cigarettes	Correct
	C.	Pipes	Incorrect

Section Seven

55 56 57 58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 66

But can we blame Buck Duke for any of that? After all, no-one is forced to take up smoking, even if they find it difficult to give up once they have started. In a recent essay for the journal Tobacco Control, Robert Proctor argues that many people in the tobacco industry all share some responsibility. "We have to realise that adverts can be carcinogens,* along with convenience stores and pharmacies that sell cigarettes. The executives who work for cigarette companies cause cancer, as do the artists who design cigarette packs and the PR and advertising firms that manage such accounts," he says. Successful lawsuits that have been brought against "big tobacco" have tended to argue that tobacco companies knew about the detrimental* effects of their products, but did nothing about it. But Buck Duke, who died in 1925, did not. "I wouldn't want to blame him for cigarette consumption," says his biographer Bob Durden, who is keen to point out Duke's positive character traits. "He was very hard- working. He loved his work."

14.	What does that refer to? (Line 55) You may choose more than one answer.
	A.	Cigarettes are more addictive than cigars	Correct
	B.	Cigarettes cause lung cancer	Correct
	C.	100 million people may die from smoking over the next 30 years	Correct

15.	What does it refer to? (Line 63)
	A.	The detrimental effects	Correct
	B.	Cigarette consumption	Incorrect
	C.	The addiction to cigarettes	Incorrect

Now read the final part of this article

	Section Eight
67 68 69 70	Those who still find something unsavoury about Duke may wish to consider his good deeds. He gave more than $100m to Trinity College in Durham, North Carolina, which was renamed Duke University in 1924 (in honour of James Buchanan Duke and his father, Washington Duke, another benefactor).
71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80	But if it weren't for Buck Duke, would Americans still be chewing tobacco today? Would modern sports bars have spittoons by the door? Goodman believes that the world was inevitably heading towards mechanised cigarette production. Bonsack's machine wasn't the only prototype,* and if Duke hadn't seized the opportunity another businessman would have. "He was both a hero and a villain I suppose. Buck Duke is a hero in terms of his understanding of the market, his understanding of human psychology, his understanding of pricing, his understanding of advertising. He's not villainous in that sense," says Goodman. Yet however great Duke's achievements as an architect of mass-production and globalisation, his legend will continue to be eclipsed by* his controversial creation. "He made the world smoke cigarettes," says Goodman. “And it’s the cigarette which has been the problem of the 20th Century.”

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Read the article again and after each section decide what the words in red refer to.

James Buchanan Duke: Father of the modern cigarette By William Kremer BBC World Service
	Section One
1 2 3 4	It looks harmless enough - white, 8cm (3in) long and about the width of a child's finger - but the cigarette is vilified* like no other product. Who invented it and how much responsibility does he bear for the countless deaths it has caused?
5 6 7	US surgeon Alton Ochsner recalled that when he was a medical student in 1919 his class was summoned to observe an autopsy* of a lung cancer victim. At that time, the disease was so rare it was thought unlikely the students would ever get another chance.
8 9 10 11	But by the year 2000, it was estimated that 1.1 million people were dying annually from the disease, with about 85% of those cases stemming from a single cause - tobacco. "The cigarette is the deadliest artefact in the history of human civilisation," says Robert Proctor of Stanford University. "It killed about 100 million people in the 20th Century."

Vocabulary Item	Words/Idea referred to
the disease	Check your answer Your answer: Answer: lung cancer (Line 6)
those cases	Check your answer Your answer: Answer: The 1.1 million people dying annually from lung cancer (Line 8)
a single cause	Check your answer Your answer: Answer: tobacco (Line 9)

	Section Two
12 13 14 15 16 17	Jordan Goodman, the author of Tobacco in History, says that as a historian he is careful about pointing the finger at individuals, "but in the history of tobacco I feel much more confident saying that James Buchanan Duke - otherwise known as Buck Duke - was responsible for the 20th Century phenomenon known as the cigarette." Not only did Duke help create the modern cigarette, he also pioneered the marketing and distribution systems that have led to its success on every continent.
18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31	In 1880, at the age of 24, Duke entered what was then a niche* within the tobacco business - ready-rolled cigarettes. A small team in Durham, North Carolina, hand-rolled the Duke of Durham cigarettes, twisting the ends to seal them. Two years later Duke saw an opportunity. He began working with a young mechanic called James Bonsack, who said he could mechanise cigarette manufacturing. Duke was convinced that people would want to smoke these neatly- rolled, perfectly symmetrical machine-made cigarettes. Bonsack's machine revolutionised the cigarette industry. "It cranked out* what was essentially a cigarette of infinite length, cut into the appropriate lengths by whirling shears," says Robert Proctor. The open ends meant it had to be "juiced-up with chemical additives". They added glycerine, sugar and molasses, and chemicals to prevent it from drying out. But keeping cigarettes moist was not the only challenge that Bonsack's contraption presented to Duke. While his factory girls typically rolled about 200 cigarettes in a shift, the new machine produced 120,000 cigarettes a day, about a fifth of US consumption at the time. "The problem was he produced more cigarettes than he could sell," says Goodman. "He had to work out how to capture this market."

Vocabulary Item	Words/Idea referred to
contraption	Check your answer Your answer: Answer: machine (Line 23)
this market	Check your answer Your answer: Answer: The US cigarette market (Implied)

	Section Three
32 33 34 35 36	The answer was to be found in advertising and marketing. Duke sponsored races, gave his cigarettes out for free at beauty contests and placed ads in the new "glossies" - the first magazines. He also recognised that the inclusion of collectable cigarette cards was as important as getting the product right. In 1889 alone, he spent $800,000 on marketing (about $25m in today's money).
37 38 39 40 41 42 43	Bonsack retained the patent to his machine, but as thanks for Duke's support in developing it, he offered him a 30% discount on the lease.* This competitive advantage, coupled with vigorous promotion, was key to Duke's early success. As he had suspected, people liked mechanised cigarettes. They were modern-looking and more hygienic - one campaign emphasised this point over cigars, which were manufactured using human hands and saliva, although cigarette smoking in the US quadrupled in the 15 years to 1900, it remained a niche market, with most tobacco being chewed or smoked through pipes and cigars.

Vocabulary Item	Words/Idea referred to
The answer	Check your answer Your answer: Answer: The answer to capturing the cigarette market (Line 31)
the new "glossies"	Check your answer Your answer: Answer: The first magazines (Lines 33-34)
This competitive advantage	Check your answer Your answer: Answer: The 30% discount on the lease of Bonsack’s machine (Line 38)

Section Four

44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54

Duke - a cigar smoker himself - saw the potential for cigarettes to be used in places closed to cigars and pipes, such as drawing rooms and restaurants. The ease with which they could be lit and - unlike pipes - remain lit, also suited them to coffee breaks in modern city life. "The cigarette was really used in a different way," says Proctor. "And it was milder - and this is one of the great ironies, that cigarettes were widely thought to be safer than cigars, because they are just 'little cigars', right?" We now know that cigarettes are far more addictive than cigars. The fact that the smoke is inhaled - which it is not traditional for cigars - also makes them more dangerous. But a correlation with lung cancer was not made until the 1930s and the causal link was not established until 1957 in the UK and 1964 in the US. The WHO warns that unless preventative measures are taken, 100 million people will die of tobacco-related diseases over the next 30 years - more than from Aids, tuberculosis, car accidents and suicide combined.

Vocabulary Item	Words/Idea referred to
one of the great ironies	Check your answer Your answer: Answer: that cigarettes were widely thought to be safer than cigars (Line 48)

Section Five

55 56 57 58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 66

But can we blame Buck Duke for any of that? After all, no-one is forced to take up smoking, even if they find it difficult to give up once they have started. In a recent essay for the journal Tobacco Control, Robert Proctor argues that many people in the tobacco industry all share some responsibility. "We have to realise that adverts can be carcinogens,* along with convenience stores and pharmacies that sell cigarettes. The executives who work for cigarette companies cause cancer, as do the artists who design cigarette packs and the PR and advertising firms that manage such accounts," he says. Successful lawsuits that have been brought against "big tobacco" have tended to argue that tobacco companies knew about the detrimental* effects of their products, but did nothing about it. But Buck Duke, who died in 1925, did not. "I wouldn't want to blame him for cigarette consumption," says his biographer Bob Durden, who is keen to point out Duke's positive character traits. "He was very hard- working. He loved his work."

Vocabulary Item	Words/Idea referred to
big tobacco	Check your answer Your answer: Answer: The tobacco industry (Line 57)
the detrimental effects	Check your answer Your answer: Answer: The bad health effects of cigarettes mentioned in the previous section
their products	Check your answer Your answer: Answer: cigarettes

	Section Six
67 68 69 70	Those who still find something unsavoury about Duke may wish to consider his good deeds. He gave more than $100m to Trinity College in Durham, North Carolina, which was renamed Duke University in 1924 (in honour of James Buchanan Duke and his father, Washington Duke, another benefactor).
71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80	But if it weren't for Buck Duke, would Americans still be chewing tobacco today? Would modern sports bars have spittoons by the door? Goodman believes that the world was inevitably heading towards mechanised cigarette production. Bonsack's machine wasn't the only prototype,* and if Duke hadn't seized the opportunity another businessman would have. "He was both a hero and a villain I suppose. Buck Duke is a hero in terms of his understanding of the market, his understanding of human psychology, his understanding of pricing, his understanding of advertising. He's not villainous in that sense," says Goodman. Yet however great Duke's achievements as an architect of mass-production and globalisation, his legend will continue to be eclipsed by* his controversial creation. "He made the world smoke cigarettes," says Goodman. “And it’s the cigarette which has been the problem of the 20th Century.”

Vocabulary Item	Words/Idea referred to
prototype	Check your answer Your answer: Answer: machine
his controversial creation	Check your answer Your answer: Answer: The modern mechanised cigarette

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Now read the article for the final time. You should know it quite well by now. Create ellipsis and make the text more natural by erasing all the words and phrases you think are unnecessary.